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Isaiah: Judgment and Deliverance

October 9, 2020 By Peter Krol

It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the book of Isaiah on the formation of Christian doctrine. Isaiah is the book quoted second-most often by the New Testament authors (only the Psalms are quoted more often), but I wouldn’t be surprised if Isaiah surpassed the Psalms in the sheer number of off-hand allusions.

Just think: Without Isaiah, we wouldn’t have Immanuel, a voice crying in the wilderness, the sting of death, the root of Jesse, proclamation of good news to the poor, a bruised reed he will not break, light for the Gentiles, every knee shall bow, how beautiful are the feet that bring good news, go out from their midst, a house of prayer, or the earth is my footstool. Without Isaiah, we wouldn’t have a breastplate of righteousness, helmet of salvation, new heavens and new earth, he gave himself for our sins, by his wounds you are healed, the suffering servant, a ransom for many, the Lamb who takes away the sin of the world, the many will be made righteous, unquenchable fire, being taught of God, blessings of David, a remnant shall be saved, found by those who didn’t seek me, a spirit of stupor, the wisdom of the wise, eye has not seen, ear has not heard, speak in strange tongues, the breath of his mouth, feeble hands and weak knees, feet swift to shed blood, clay in the hands of a potter, lest tomorrow we die, the acceptable time, the day of salvation, God supplies rain and seed, a precious cornerstone, owning a vineyard and expecting it bear fruit, you are my witnesses, I am the first and the last, the skies roll up like a scroll, robe stained in blood, no hunger or thirst, wipe away every tear, the children God has given me, or behold your God!

Isaiah is central to the Christian faith. It is worth your time to grasp its message.

Literary Markers

The clearest literary shift in this lengthy book is the switch from poetry (Isaiah 1-35) to narrative (Isaiah 36-39) and back to poetry (Isaiah 40-66). Brief narrative portions occurs elsewhere (chapters 6-7, 20, etc.), but not nearly on the same scale as the large block of chapters 36-39.

Within the first division (chapters 1-35), Isaiah marks the opening prophecies with headings (Isaiah 1:1, 2:1). But we don’t get any other headings until Isaiah 13:1, 14:28, 15:1, etc., where they are concentrated until Is 26:1. Then we don’t see such headings for the remainder of the book. This shows that chapters 13-27 are arranged together as a collection (of judgments on the nations of the world). Therefore, the opening division has three main sections: Isaiah 1-12, 13-27, and 28-35. The people are living under the kings of Judah, surrounded by enemies such as Assyria, and the narratives of Is 36-39 fit within this setting.

However, beginning at chapter 40, the audience appears to be exiles awaiting restoration (e.g. Is 40:1-3). And beginning at chapter 56, the audience appears to be back in the land with a temple (e.g. Is 56:5-7). This leads many academics to theorize three authors for the book, from three time periods (kingdom, exile, restoration), but such a conclusion is necessary only if you reject out of hand the possibility that God’s prophets are able to speak, well, prophetically. We are justified, however, in treating Is 40-55 and Is 56-66 as discrete sections of the book.

Within the first of those sections, Is 40 introduces two issues (Israel’s warfare with Babylon and her sin against God). The following chapters resolve the warfare with Babylon in Is 40-48 and the sin against God in Is 49-55.

This analysis yields the following rough outline of sections:

Isaiah 1-35
- 1-12
- 13-27
- 28-35
- 36-39
Isaiah 40-55
- 40-48
- 49-55
Isaiah 56-66

Let’s walk through the argument of each part.

Walkthrough Part 1

Chapter sets the stage for the rest of the book. Yahweh makes a case against his people (Is 1:1-15): His children have rebelled against them. Then he makes them an offer (Is 1:16-31): Trust him and be cleansed, or trust in false gods and become tinder for the fire. The rest of the book will unpack these fundamental ideas: How have God’s children turned away from him? How could he make cleansing possible for them? What happens to those who hold fast to the wrong gods?

Chapters 2-5 alternate between visions of a glorious future for the faithful and evidence of condemnation for the unfaithful. This culminates in Isaiah’s cleansing and commission (chapter 6) to preach to those who will become as senseless as their deaf and blind idols. Is 7:1-9:7 reveals that the way God will be able to be with his people is through an appointed king who will establish David’s throne in justice and righteousness. In Is 9:8-11:16, Yahweh pleads with his people to turn from their ways and set their hope in this coming king, the root of Jesse, upon whom will rest Yahweh’s own Spirit. Chapter 12 caps off this section with a celebration of God’s glorious provision of salvation.

Chapters 13-27 recount God’s attitude of judgment on the nations. Isaiah presents the oracles in three cycles of five judgments each.

Cycle 1: Babylon, Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Egypt (Is 13-20)
Cycle 2: Wilderness of the sea, Dumah, Arabia, Valley of vision, Tyre (Is 21-23)
Cycle 3: The wasted city, the host of heaven, the mountain of Yahweh, the strong city, Leviathan and the fortified city (Is 24-27)

As you can see, each cycle gets increasingly abstract and apocalyptic (symbolic) in its language. But Judah herself is not exempt from judgment, even when she is the location of glorious salvation (chapters 22, 25, 27).

Chapters 28-35 highlight the failure of all earthly powers to either save or judge in truth. This section is structured by six “woes” (“ah” and “woe” in the ESV translate the same Hebrew word – Is 28:1, 29:1, 29:15, 30:1, 31:1, 33:1). The first three woes explain the principles: False gods will fail; nothing can deliver those who reject Yahweh and his word; nothing can compare in power to Yahweh. The second three woes apply those principles in Judah’s historical moment: Egypt will fail; neither Egypt nor Assyria can deliver those who reject Yahweh and his word; neither Egypt nor Assyria can compare in power to Yahweh.

Everything Isaiah has spoken to this point finds its climax in the narratives of chapters 36-39, where we see a great king of Judah (Is 36:1) being challenged by a great king of Assyria (Is 36:4), yet Judah’s king will not relinquish his hold on an even higher king to deliver him (Is 37:16-17). He recognizes that false gods will fail (Is 37:18-20). Even on his sickbed, he continues trusting Yahweh (Is 38:20). That is, until the Assyrian threat passes and Babylon comes on the scene … (Is 39:1-2, 6). This narrative thus transitions us into the new need of a new generation: Rescue from exile in Babylon.

In short, the message of Part 1 (1-39) of Isaiah is: It is Yahweh alone who judges and delivers, and he does so through his appointed King.

Walkthrough Part 2

Part 2 open with words of comfort to the exiles (Is 40:1). Yet this comfort runs far deeper than they might expect. Not only will their warfare with Babylon come to an end. Their iniquity before God also must find pardon.

Comfort, comfort my people, says your God.
Speak tenderly to Jerusalem,
and cry to her
that her warfare is ended,
that her iniquity is pardoned,
that she has received from Yahweh’s hand
double for all her sins
Isaiah 40:1-2

Part 2 takes up these matters, showing in great detail just how they could come to pass.

First, Isaiah addresses the end of warfare with Babylon (the end of exile). In chapter 40, he describes Yahweh as both able and willing to make these things happen. In chapter 41, he enumerates the ramifications of this rescue on the coastlands and nations of the world. In chapter 42, he leaks God’s plan to send a servant to bring forth justice. In chapters 43-44, he ties the exile closely to the people’s rank idolatry, such that rescue from the first must simultaneously involve rescue from the latter. Chapters 45-48 then show how God will raise Cyrus as his anointed, to defeat Babylon and trample on Babylon’s impotent gods. The section culminates in demonstration of God’s loving justice (Isaiah 47) and his just love (Isaiah 48). There is no other god like this God.

Second, Isaiah must deal with the deeper, inward issue of their sin against God. Through his literary masterpiece, he weaves together a number of threads, including the coming servant, songs of deliverance, irrational hope, and the God who covenants to make it all possible. The tension builds through a crescendo of double repetition—”awake, awake” (Is 51:9), “I, I” (Is 51:12), “wake yourself, wake yourself” (Is 51:17), “awake, awake” (Is 52:1), “depart, depart” (Is 52:11)—before it explodes into the magnificent hymn of praise to the coming, tragic servant (Is 52:13-53:12). This leads the people to burst out in song and to expect the impossible from here on out (Is 54-55).

In short, we see in Part 2 that Yahweh is both willing and able to judge and deliver through his Servant.

Walkthrough Part 3

Part 3 of Isaiah presents itself as a single unit with a coherent structure:

Outcasts are gathered – Is 56:1-8
- God’s people still need a lot of work – Is 56:90-59:8
  - Prayer of repentance – Is 59:9-13
    - Yahweh himself suits up to do for them what they can’t do for themselves – Is 59:14-21
      - The vision of all that Israel and Jerusalem could become – Is 60-62
    - Yahweh himself crushes all opponents to this vision – Is 63:1-6
  - Prayer of repentance – Is 63:7-64:12
- God’s people still need a lot of work – Is 65:1-66:17
Many gathered in, and some cast out – Is 66:18-24

In short, Yahweh’s deliverance brings a new world through his Conqueror.

No Hope But Jesus

No wonder Jesus could read Isaiah 61 in the Galilean synagogue and tell them these words were fulfilled that very day (Luke 4:16-21). No wonder the Scripture of Isaiah 53 must be fulfilled in him (Luke 22:37). Jesus alone is the true King, Servant, and Conqueror Isaiah said we would need. Through him, deliverance is possible, from both sin and warfare. And judgment is certain for those who resist him (2 Thess 1:5-10).

Interpretive Outline

It is Yahweh alone who judges and delivers through his King – Is 1-39
1. Charge of rebellion, offer of cleansing – Is 1-12
2. Judgment on all nations – Is 13-27
3. Failure of earthly powers – Is 28-35
4. In whom will you trust? – Is 36-39
Yahweh is willing and able to judge and deliver through his Servant – Is 40-55
1. End of warfare with Babylon and her idols – Is 40-48
2. End of sin through the Servant’s sacrifice – Is 49-55
Yahweh’s deliverance brings a new world through his Conqueror – Is 56-66

I have benefitted much from commentaries on Isaiah by Alec Motyer and Andrew Abernethy (affiliate links). My work above is deeply influenced by their insights.

For more interpretive walkthroughs of books of the Bible, click here.

Psalms: A Royal Picture Book

October 2, 2020 By Peter Krol

In 1874, Russian composer Modest Mussourgsky gifted the world with a musical masterpiece, composed in honor of his dearly and untimely departed friend, the artist Viktor Hartmann. The piece, originally written for piano but later orchestrated by Maurice Ravel, is known as Pictures at an Exhibition. Its ten movements each seek to depict one of Hartmann’s paintings, which had been gathered for public display in his memory. At the work’s beginning, and four additional times throughout, Mussourgsky inserted a “Promenade,” to represent the art-lover ambling from exhibit to exhibit.

I like big brass, so can’t bring myself to post the original piano version for you.

What Pictures at an Exhibition is to the paintings of Viktor Hartmann, the book of Psalms is to the person and work of God’s Messiah, Jesus Christ. God gave us this collection of 150 poems to publicly display what he was preparing to do through his appointed, law-abiding King.

In approaching this book, let us be careful to avoid what James Hely Hutchinson calls excessive introspection. “This book is more fundamentally ‘God’s word to us’ than ‘our words to God.’ Sensitivity to the abundance of New Testament quotations of, and allusions to, the psalms should lead us to major on God’s attributes and Christology.”¹

Literary Markers

Ancient manuscripts of the Book of Psalms clearly demarcate five divisions to the book. Modern Bibles title them “Book 1,” “Book 2,” and so on. This division into five “books” is reinforced by a distinct doxology (word of blessing or praise to God) at the end of each book. These doxologies typically have little to do with the poem immediately preceding them.

Blessed be the Lord, the God of Israel, from everlasting to everlasting! Amen and Amen. (Ps 41:13)

Blessed be the Lord, the God of Israel, who alone does wondrous things. Blessed be his glorious name forever; may the whole earth be filled with his glory! Amen and Amen! The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended. (Ps 72:8-20)

Blessed be the Lord forever! Amen and Amen. (Ps 89:52)

Blessed be the Lord, the God of Israel, from everlasting to everlasting! And let all the people say, “Amen!” Praise the Lord! (Ps 106:48)

Praise the Lord! (Beginning and ending of Psalms 146-150)

So the book breaks into the following divisions:

Book 1: Psalms 1-41
Book 2: Psalms 42-72
Book 3: Psalms 73-89
Book 4: Psalms 90-106
Book 5: Psalms 107-150

Let’s promenade through these poems/pictures on exhibition. For a more detailed analysis of the book of Psalms than what I can offer in this post, see my spreadsheet.

Book 1: The King Rejected by Men but Accepted by God

The first two poems stand apart as some of the only poems in book 1 not written by David. They introduce the book by bracketing a double blessing around the person who delights in God’s law (Ps 1:1-2) and submits to God’s king (Ps 2:12). Law and king; king and law. The king loves God’s law. The law speaks about God’s king. These will be the twin themes of the entire collection.

Book 1 then proceeds in three parts. Part 1 (Psalms 3-14) portray the king’s rejection by men. Part 2 (Psalms 15-24) show forth his acceptance by God. Part 3 (Psalms 25-35) return to the fact of his rejection by men. A closing section (Psalms 36-41) illustrate the king’s response to this state of affairs.

The big idea in Book 1 is that we see David himself suffering as the king of Israel, but finding great courage in God’s divine assistance and declaration of support. And yet, these poems make clear that David is only the beginning. Another king must come to turn what David felt into cosmic reality.

“The Lord dealt with me according to my righteousness; according to the cleanness of my hands he rewarded me … Great salvation he brings to his king, and shows steadfast love to his anointed, to David and his offspring forever” (Ps 18:20, 50).

“Now I know the Lord saves his anointed; he will answer him from his holy heaven with the saving might of his right hand … O Lord, save the king! May he answer us when we call” (Ps 20:6, 9).

Book 2: We Need a King Greater than David

What Book 1 hinted at, Book 2 comes out and says directly.

The Book opens with the king’s wrestling through spiritual depression (Ps 42-43). It ends with him growing old (Ps 71) and passing the baton to the next generation (Ps 72). Along the way he must deal with everything from his own sin (Ps 51), to the sins of others (Ps 52-56), to the effects of such sin all around him (Ps 60-64). This leads him to celebrate both what he does for his people (Ps 44-50) and who he is in himself (Ps 65-68).

But this means we need someone greater than David. Someone who will never buckle under the pressure of opposition but will only see God’s glory in it (Ps 57). Someone whom God will resoundingly exonerate after being baselessly prosecuted (Ps 69). Someone greater than Solomon, ruling from the River to the ends of the earth (Ps 72).

“May he have dominion from sea to sea, and from the River to the ends of the earth! … May all kings fall down before him, all nations serve him!” (Ps 72:8, 11).

Book 3: We are Desperate in Exile

The third movement moves to a dark place, where all the promises of God (those things we ought to delight in – Psalm 1) are brought into question.

The book begins with the appearance that only the wicked prosper (Ps 73), and it ends with a desperate cry from those whose king has been sent into exile (Ps 89). In between, the poems are structured in pairs (starting on the outside and working in) showing how a people process the experience of being cut off and forcibly removed from all God has given them. This generates deep concern for the present and uncertainty regarding the future.

Yet at the center of this collection, we find a poem (Ps 81) exposing the fact that it is the people’s persistent stubbornness, and not any alleged broken promises on God’s part, that led to this situation.

“Restore us, O Lord God of hosts! Let your face shine, that we may be saved!” (Ps 80:3, 7, 19).

Book 4: We Have Hope our Exile will Eventually End

In Book 4, we get a sizable dose of hope and encouragement. Though we are transient, Yahweh is eternal (Ps 90). When we dwell in his shadow, no-one can harm us (Ps 91). The Lord will not forsake his people in exile; he is present with them to hold them up amid the scorn of the nations (Ps 94).

These poems begin with reminders that God is present in exile and has not abandoned his people (Ps 90-94). It moves the people to praise God as king over all nations, because he is the king of his chosen people Israel (Ps 95-101). These truths enable them, as a community, to grieve with hope (Ps 102-106).

“He has remembered his steadfast love and faithfulness to the house of Israel. All the ends of the earth have seen the salvation of our God” (Ps 98:3).

“Let this be recorded for a generation to come, so that a people yet to be created may praise the Lord: that he looked down from his holy height; from heaven the Lord looked at the earth, to hear the groans of the prisoners, to set free those who were doomed to die, that they may declare in Zion the name of the Lord” (Ps 102:18-22).

Book 5: Exile Ends in Praise

The four subsections of Book 5 have a parallel structure:

Yahweh redeems king and people (Ps 107-110)
- Outburst of praise on behalf of king and people (Ps 111-119)
Yahweh raises king and people up from exile to worship (Ps 120-137)
- The king leads all people to worship Yahweh (Ps 138-150)

It should not escape our notice that the cause for praise in this Book’s opening is the people’s being “gathered in from the lands” (Ps 107:1-3). And now that they are back, their king returns to power and prominence (Ps 110, 118, 132, 144). Also, God’s word becomes the driving joy of the community (Ps 119). So the twin emphases of Psalms 1 and 2 return in force in Book 5.

The “psalms of ascent” (Ps 120-134) might seem to be their own unit. But notice how Ps 134 moves right into Ps 135 (compare Ps 134:1 with Ps 135:1-2), and how Ps 135 moves right into Ps 136 (compare Ps 135:11-12 with Ps 136:17-22). And then Psalm 137 returns to the theme of Psalm 120, bracketing the section with reflections on the trauma of exile and the hope for something better.

And consider how the book’s last section develops:

The king himself worships God for his astounding rescue (Ps 138-144: see especially Ps 144:9-10)
The king commits to leading the people in worship (Ps 145)
The people worship Yahweh for his astounding rescue (Ps 146-150)

Interpretive Outline

Time and space have failed me to comment on the many connections to the New Testament. While the Book of Psalms doesn’t tell a cohesive narrative or make a linear sustained argument, the book’s 150 poems are clearly arranged like an exhibition of paintings meant to communicate impressions and offer snapshots of how God’s ultimate king interacts with God’s word. I trust you are beginning to understand why the apostles quoted from the Psalms more than any other book when they sought to explain the person and work of the Lord Jesus Christ.

The king is rejected by men but accepted by God – Ps 1-41
We need a king greater than David – Ps 42-72
We are desperate in exile – Ps 73-89
We have hope our exile will eventually end – Ps 90-106
Exile ends in praise – Ps 107-150

For more interpretive walkthroughs of books of the Bible, click here.

¹NIV Proclamation Bible, Zondervan, 2013, p.571.

Why We Should be More Familiar with OT Sacrifices

September 25, 2020 By Peter Krol

For the first time in my life, I’ve been spending significant time studying the book of Leviticus. You know, that book you and I have always avoided, except perhaps for annual reading plans? It’s all been fulfilled by Jesus, so we don’t need to know it very well, right?

Let me share just a few highlights of the beginning of my study.

Leviticus 1-7 lists the regulations for five types of sacrifice, each of which has a different focus. The first type is the “burnt offering” (Lev 1), and the thing that distinguishes the burnt offering is that it is the only sacrifice where the entire corpse of the animal is consumed in the altar’s fire. Every other sacrifice has some portion reserved for priest or people to cook and eat.

In addition, the burnt offering is not directly connected with sin. I have tended to flatten my understanding of Old Testament sacrifices to little more than substitutionary payment for sin. And yet, the first type of sacrifice, the bread and butter of the Mosaic system, is not a payment for sin. It is the sacrifice someone would offer when they simply want to draw near to God and express their loyalty or praise to him (“vows or freewill offerings” – Lev 22:18). The burnt offering simply makes it possible for people to draw near to God in worship, offering oneself completely, leaving nothing out.

So why does this matter? How an Israelite would offer their burnt offering matters to God. Unless it is offered in the prescribed way, it will not be acceptable, a pleasing aroma (Lev 1:3, 9, 13, 17). And when we dig into the mechanics of bringing a burnt offering, fascinating things seep from the text’s pores. Notice how all of the following theological language has its roots in the burnt offering of Leviticus 1:

laying on of hands (Lev 1:4, 1 Tim 4:14)
acceptable worship (Lev 1:4, Heb 12:28)
atonement (Lev 1:4, Dan 9:24)
sprinkling of blood (Lev 1:5, 1 Pet 1:2)
washing with water (Lev 1:9, Eph 5:26)
turning to smoke (Lev 1:9, Rev 19:3)
consuming fire (Lev 1:9, Heb 12:29)

In addition, the metaphors “holy and acceptable (transformed) sacrifices” (Rom 12:1-2) and “fragrant offering, a sacrifice acceptable and pleasing to God” (Phil 4:18) all likely draw their word pictures from the burnt offering (and perhaps a few other types of sacrifice).

How does it deepen your thinking about such texts, when you start to see that ordination (1 Tim 4:14), marriage (Eph 5:26), or ministry philanthropy (Phil 4:18) are New Testament applications of the regulations for the levitical burnt offering?

I’m delighted to discover how richly rewarding it is to gain greater familiarity with these sacrificial rituals and with the text of Leviticus. Perhaps this will encourage you to take a closer look at this oft-neglected book as well.

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Ecclesiastes: The Fear of God Gives Joy Amid Frustration

September 18, 2020 By Peter Krol

Proverbs is all about getting us moving in the right direction, toward the Lord and away from ourselves. Job shows us how to keep moving in that direction when everything falls apart. Ecclesiastes completes the triptych of wisdom books, inspiring us to persevere in that journey, despite how frustrating it may be to do so.

Literary Markers

Ecclesiastes does not present its divisions nearly as obviously as Job and Proverbs do. The book could almost be considered a lab report, where the wise man presents his findings to a series of inquiries. So the chief markers to look for are the first-person signals, such as “I saw,” “I turned,” and “I considered.”

But with that said, the book’s sections appear to be tightly organized around topics. And within those topics, what appears at first to be linear and uncoordinated ramblings are actually carefully arranged to increase the rhetorical impact.

For example, after the thesis of Eccl 1:2-3, we get a series of four metaphors (Eccl 1:4-7) followed by four interpretations of the metaphors (Eccl 1:8-11). Then we get a narrative reflection (Eccl 1:12-14) with poetic conclusion (Eccl 1:15), followed by another narrative reflection (Eccl 1:16-17) with poetic conclusion (Eccl 1:18).

Working through the book to find those tightly structured units, organized around a single topic, yields the following divisions*:

1:1-3: Thesis
1:4-2:26: Repetition and gain
3:1-22: God’s sovereignty
4:1-5:7: Human community
5:8-6:12: Wealth
7:1-24: Suffering
7:25-9:12: Sin
9:13-10:20: Wisdom
11:1-12:8: Walking with God
12:9-14: Conclusion

Even if I’m not exactly right on the exact divisions, the most important thing in studying Ecclesiastes is to follow the argument. It is ultimately a book of truth and wisdom, which seeks to persuade you of truth and poke you into action (Eccl 12:11). So what is that argument?

Argument

The book states its chief conclusion (Eccl 1:2) and process (Eccl 1:3) up front. The process of looking for “gain,” or profit, under the sun yields the conclusion that everything is “vanity.” “Vanity” is a squishy concept, which we must grasp if we are to follow the argument. From here, I will use the plainer word “frustration,” which presumes the arguments I offered in this post.

So what are we able to get out of life? Frustration. An endless repetition of old things that will never satisfy. Such frustration is illustrated and explained vividly (Eccl 1:4-11), leading to the twin conclusions that we cannot fix anything (Eccl 1:15), and more knowledge produces more pain (Eccl 1:18). Inspiring, huh?

But look at what happens if we run from these hard truths (these sharp, pointy sticks – Eccl 12:11)? More pleasure won’t make the truth any easier (Eccl 2:1-11). Nor will more education (Eccl 2:12-17) or more honest work (Eccl 2:18-23). You cannot retreat from life’s frustration into your muscle cars, romance novels, academia, or entrepreneurship. None of these things will help.

The best we can hope for is a supernatural joy (Eccl 2:24-25), given as a free gift of grace (Eccl 2:26) by an all-powerful God (Eccl 3:1-22). God has made it so that the world would be a frustrating place, all so we would fear him (Eccl 3: 11, 14). Even the continuous presence of injustice where we would expect justice serves this purpose, of frustrating our wildest dreams and humbling our arrogant hearts before the Majesty of God on high (Eccl 3:16-22).

So what does this mean for life on earth for those who would fear God?

First, we can avoid the dangers of going it alone (Eccl 4:1-5:7). We don’t have to be lonely (Eccl 4:1-6), we can get help (Eccl 4:7-16), and we find such things as we listen to God more than we speak to him (Eccl 5:1-7).

Second, we can be content with what our sovereign God chooses to give us. We know love of money will never satisfy (Eccl 5:8-17)—because only God gives lasting contentment (Eccl 5:18-20)—and we can beware the pain of dissatisfaction (Eccl 6:1-7). We can ask ourselves some hard questions about how much control money really gives us over our future (Eccl 6:8-12).

Third, we can take a realistic and joy-inducing view of suffering. We learn wisdom about what is worth taking to heart (Eccl 7:1-13) and what is not worth taking to heart (Eccl 7:15-24). This equips us to consider the crooked works of our sovereign God so we might fear him (Eccl 7:14).

Fourth, we can stop being so surprised by how sinful humanity is. Our joy in fearing God enables to see that sin goes very wide (Eccl 7:25-29) and very high up (Eccl 8:1-17), but has a clear endpoint (Eccl 9:1-12). Death, the wage of sin, has a profound equalizing effect on all humanity (Eccl 9:1-6, 11-12), which in turn has a profound impact on the daily choices God-fearers will make (Eccl 9:7-10).

Fifth, we’ll be persuaded of the high value of wisdom relative to folly, when we live in God’s world, which always plays by God’s rules, even when the foolish try to make it otherwise (Eccl 9:13-10:20).

Finally, these truths about a frustrating world will inspire us to persevere in trying anything (Eccl 11:1-6)—it just might work!—and enduring to the end (Eccl 11:7-8). We can rejoice now (Eccl 11:9-10) if we remember what is on its way (Eccl 12:1-8).

Conclusion

So of course, the frustration of life ought to inspire us to fear God and keep his commandments (Eccl 12:13-14). But make no mistake, this frustration and this fear have a symbiotic relationship. Not only does the frustration produce fear, but the fear also increases the frustration, which in turn elevates the fear yet again.

The book of Ecclesiastes shows us there are no pat answers in matters pertaining to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. He does whatever he pleases, which often will look to us like “time and chance” (Eccl 9:11). But his word never fails, his promises are sure, and his commandments are not burdensome. When he sets his affection on you, he gives you the gift of irrational joy in the face of such frustration. Don’t ever give that up or take it for granted, for Jesus died and rose so the pure life of the age to come could invade our present age of frustration.

Christians ought to respond to their world in a way unlike anyone else, and Ecclesiastes explains why.

Interpretive Outline

The frustration of life – 1:1-3
The fear of the Lord amid repetition – 1:4-2:26
The sovereignty of God – 3:1-22
The fear of the Lord in practice
- The fear of the Lord in community – 4:1-5:7
- The fear of the Lord and contentment – 5:8-6:12
- The fear of the Lord and suffering – 7:1-24
- The fear of the Lord and sin – 7:25-9:12
- The fear of the Lord and wisdom – 9:13-10:20
- Walking in the fear of God – 11:1-12:8
The fear of the Lord in conclusion – 12:9-14

*I’m grateful to Joel Miles for the insights that led to this map of divisions.

For more interpretive walkthroughs of books of the Bible, click here.

Context Matters: The Cattle on a Thousand Hills

September 11, 2020 By Peter Krol

Perhaps you’ve heard that God owns the cattle on a thousand hills. And perhaps this truth has encouraged you through a season of anxiety or loss. Perhaps it reminds you of his all-sufficient care for you. Such sentiments may be generally true (Luke 12:32, John 10:14-15, etc.), but are they the sort of applications the poet responsible for Psalm 50 had in mind?

Context matters. We ignore it to our peril, increasing the risk of many dangerous consequences for both ourselves and others. When we learn to read the Bible properly—and not merely as a collection of one-liners and sound bites—we’ll find some of our habitual turns of phrase may have far more sinister import than we realized.

A Time for Judgment

Psalm 50 begins with the Mighty God summoning all the earth (Ps 50:1) to Zion (Ps 50:2) to judge his own people (Ps 50:3-4). The very heavens declare his righteousness (Ps 50:6), and he cannot exempt his covenant people from his fiery holiness and searing justice (Ps 50:5).

What does he judge his covenant people for?

In Psalm 50:7-15, he appears to judge them for their legalism. They offer him sacrifices and burnt offerings (Ps 50:8), but what he wants is hearts of thanksgiving and integrity (Ps 50:14). He wants them to need him (Ps 50:15).

In Psalm 50:16-21, he appears to judge them for their licentiousness. Though he speaks to “the wicked” (Ps 50:16), we must remember he came to “judge his people” (Ps 50:4), to gather his faithful ones who made a covenant with him by sacrifice (Ps 50:5). So the “wicked” are those within the covenant community—who take his covenant on their lips (Ps 50:16)—yet refuse discipline (Ps 50:17), subsidize theft and adultery (Ps 50:18), speak words of deceit (Ps 50:19), slander one another (Ps 50:20), and presume God to be as corrupt as they are (Ps 50:21).

A Solution Offered

Notice what he offers to his people. Away from legalism, he calls them to thanksgiving (Ps 50:23a). And away from licentiousness, he calls them to order their way rightly (Ps 50:23b). May they not forget there is always a way of escape from his terrible judgment (Ps 50:22).

A Thousand Hills of Cattle

So within the context of this poem’s argument, why does it say he owns the cattle on a thousand hills (Ps 50:10)?

That verse sits within the stanza condemning them for their legalistic practice of sacrificing animals without hearts of thankfulness and integrity. They think he needs them to pay him off with such animal sacrifice (Ps 50:9-13), when the truth is they need him in the day of trouble (Ps 50:15).

His condemnation resounds. “I do not need your stupid cattle, slaughtered at my altar in an attempt to buy me off. I own all the cattle; why would I have any need of yours? Just call me, and I’ll be there for you.”

Conclusion

The truth that “he owns the cattle on a thousand hills” was not penned to grant us assurance that our kind Father can take care of us. No, this assertion’s plain purpose is to shake up complacent religious people by reminding them they’ll never be able to bribe their God. He cannot be bought with their religious ritual.

Mark this, then, you who are prone to forget God, lest he tear you apart, and there be none to deliver. May we offer not bulls—nor songs, nor daily devotions, nor acts of service, nor financial contributions—for the sake of heaven-bound bribery, but hearts overcome with thanksgiving for his amazing and utterly undeserved salvation.

Context matters.

For more examples of why context matters, click here.

Psalm 119 and the Search for Clarity

September 4, 2020 By Peter Krol

I have a love/hate relationship with the longest chapter of the Bible. I love it, in part, because I know I’m supposed to and, in part, because it speaks extensively of the the word of God, which I love. But funny thing: Loving the Bible and loving Psalm 119 are not always mutually indwelling sentiments.

The fact of the matter is that Psalm 119 has a lot of lines. And even more words. I can handle many lines and many words if there is a linear argument or a compelling plot. But Psalm 119 has neither, so it typically feels like floating amongst the stars—please suspend your disbelief while I pretend to know what that would feel like—or breaststroking my way through a lake of peanut butter.

The nice thing is that the mastermind responsible for this interminable poem had the courtesy to start every verse within a stanza with the same letter, and to move through the alphabet from stanza to stanza, perhaps to make it easier to memorize. So if you’re a native speaker of ancient Hebrew, you’ll have an easier go at it. The rest of us covenantal immigrants, however, receive no such assistance, beyond those funny Hebrew shapes and transliterated words at the heading for each stanza. Bring on the peanut butter; I have more laps to swim today.

I’ve tried counting the number of distinct terms used for the Scripture. I’ve tried counting how many times each term is used. I’ve tried labelling verses as either praise/encouragement or lament/suffering. I’ve tried many times to read it in one sitting, and I’ve tried reading it a stanza or three at a time.

None of those techniques have helped me to grasp the message of the poem, in such a way that I have any confidence to have understood it. The practice that has helped me the most has been to try identifying a single main idea for each stanza, so as to see how each stanza then contributes to the overall effect. In the last 15 years, I’ve made four attempts at writing down main points for each stanza. Each time, I adjust it further and gain more confidence that I’m closer to the true main idea than I was the last time.

I will now share with you the fruit of my labor in this poem from the last few weeks. (You can also find this on the second tab of my Psalms spreadsheet, which you can access any time through the blog’s Resources page.) I would not consider myself to have mastered this psalm yet, but I trust I’m getting closer. I can at least say the poem makes more sense to me now than it did a few months ago, so progress has been made.

This poem sheds much light on the person and work of Jesus Christ, when we recognize that he is the “I” of the psalm. And as we are conformed to his image, we ought to strive to similar trust in both the Bible and the God who delivered it to us.

I invite your feedback on anything I’ve written here. I am eager to improve my understanding of this glorious poem, to inflame greater love for it. “I will also speak of your testimonies before kings and shall not be put to shame, for I find my delight in your commandments, which I love” (Ps 119:47-48).

	SECTION	THEME/SITUATION
א	Aleph	Blessed are those who walk in Yahweh’s commands (Ps 119:1-8)
ב	Bet	Young people remain pure by storing up God’s word while they can (Ps 119:9-16)
ג	Gimel	God must deal bountifully for the word to take effect (Ps 119:17-24)
ד	Daleth	The struggle for strengthening in sorrow, from the scripture (Ps 119:25-32)
ה	He	I need divine help to persevere in God’s commandments (Ps 119:33-40)
ו	Vav	God’s love for me arouses my love for his commandments (Ps 119:41-48)
ז	Zayin	I can trust God’s words in a way I can’t trust anyone else’s words (Ps 119:49-56)
ח	Cheth	I turn to the word because through it, I inherit Yahweh (Ps 119:57-64)
ט	Teth	Your word is good, and I do it, because you are good (Ps 119:65-72)
י	Yod	He who made me will complete his work in me (Ps 119:73-80)
כ	Kaph	I persevere through persecution because I long for you to do what you have said (Ps 119:81-88)
ל	Lamed	God’s eternal word is fully consistent with how God made the world to work (Ps 119:89-96)
מ	Mem	The student who loves the law surpasses his teachers (Ps 119:97-104)
נ	Nun	Your word guides all of life (Ps 119:105-112)
ס	Samek	God’s word shapes my thinking toward evildoers to be like God’s (Ps 119:113-120)
ע	Ayin	God’s love and God’s word give me every expectation of vindication (Ps 119:121-128)
פ	Pe	I’m desperate for light from your word (Ps 119:129-136)
צ	Tsadhe	Your rules are righteous, and I do them, because you are righteous (Ps 119:137-144)
ק	Qoph	Your word occupies all of me all the time (Ps 119:145-152)
ר	Resh	Your law gives me hope for deliverance from adversaries (Ps 119:153-160)
ש	Sin/Shin	I rejoice in your words, even under fire, for you see all my ways (Ps 119:161-168)
ת	Tav	I pour forth praise for the God of this Bible (Ps 119:169-176)

The End of Exile is Praise for Yahweh’s Covenant Love: Book 5 of the Psalms

August 28, 2020 By Peter Krol

As I’ve worked through the book of Psalms, I’ve shared with you the fruit of my labors on Book 1 (Psalms 1-41) and Books 2-4 (Psalms 42-106). Now that I’m near the end of my study, I’m ready to share some reflections on Book 5 (Psalms 107-150).

Themes

As far as the themes of Book 5, the following topics are constantly repeated:

Return from exile (such as Ps 107:1-3, 120:5-7, and 137:1-6)
Reinstatement of the king (such as Ps 110:1; 116; 118:10-13, 22;)
Remembrance of Yahweh’s eternal covenant love (such as Ps 107:1-3, 43; 118:1, 29; 136)
Request for others to join in worship (such as Ps 111:1, 112:1, 113:1, 117:1-2, 118:1-4, 145:21, 146-150)

Structure

The prominent calls to praise appear at key moments to signal climaxes in each section, or transitions to the next section.

Ps 111:1 opens a section of praise poems (Pss 111-118) that appear to respond to what God did in Pss 107-110.
Ps 118 describes a parade of worship moving from the battlefield into the temple.
The songs of ascent (Pss 120-134) describe pilgrimages toward the temple, culminating in Psalm 136, which celebrates Yahweh’s eternal covenant love in every verse.
Ps 145 concludes a group of poems where the king offers his own praise, and it invites the rest of creation to join that praise—which they do in Pss 146-150.

These patterns yield four primary sections within Book 5:

Pss 107-110: Yahweh’s mighty deeds to redeem his people and their king
- Pss 111-119: Outburst of praise on behalf of both king and people
Pss 120-137: Yahweh raises up the king and people from exile, specifically so they might worship him
- Pss 138-150: The king now leads the people in the worship of Yahweh

For Further Study

I commend this masterful book of poetry to you for further reflection and consideration. You may want to consider some of the following questions:

What role does Ps 119 play as both the conclusion to the praise of Pss 111-118 and the catalyst for the reflections in Pss 120-137?
Why role does Ps 110 play in the structure, and why is this role conducive to the apostles’ quoting of this poem more than any other psalm?
How do the psalms of ascent (Pss 120-134) fit together? And why might we think that Pss 135-137 are connected, as a conclusion, to them?
How does Ps 145 transition from the king’s praise to the people’s praise? How can we use this psalm to assist our own praise?

I have updated my Psalms spreadsheet with my thoughts on this last part of the book. I also added a second tab, where I try to capture the main idea of each stanza of Psalm 119. You can always find this spreadsheet on the blog’s resources page to assist your further study.

How the Parable of the Ten Minas is Different Than the Parable of the Talents

August 7, 2020 By Peter Krol

Last week I observed a few things and asked a few questions about whether the parable of the ten minas (Luke 19:11-27) might have a different point than the parable of the talents (Matt 25:14-30). I’ve already discussed how Matthew’s parable fits into the context of the author’s larger argument. This week, I’ll walk through Luke’s train of thought to show how different his point is from Matthew’s.

I’ve already written on the main point of Luke’s gospel as a whole and on how to navigate its middle chapters (Luke 9:51-19:27). To save space here, I won’t repeat what I wrote there, but will assume you have caught up on that background.

By Andrey Mironov – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0

Placement

The first thing I’ll point out is that the parable of the ten minas is the very last thing in Luke’s travel narrative. The very next episode has Jesus going up into Jerusalem on the back of a colt. So this parable concludes not only the fourth sub-section, which focuses on the timing of the kingdom—when will these things regarding the kingdom take place? It also concludes the entire travelogue. This parable is the capstone and climax of Luke’s meandering description of life in Jesus’ new kingdom.

The Question on the Table

In this fourth division of the travel narrative, the presenting question is “When will the kingdom of God come?” (Luke 17:20). And Jesus clearly responded that it “is in the midst of you” (Luke 17:21). I understand that the translation of that last phrase is hotly debated, but regardless of the variety of options, all suggest that the kingdom is here and now. It is tangible and present. Jesus goes on to suggest that, if you can’t see it now, you will not be able to see it in the future either (Luke 17:22). Though there are signs and suggestions for then (Luke 17:23-24), make absolutely sure you don’t miss the significance of what is taking place now (Luke 17:25).

So Jesus tells them how to prepare for it (Luke 18:1-8). He executes the admission and dismissal of its citizens (Luke 18:9-17). He paints a picture of the current behaviors of those who look ahead to eternal life (Luke 18:18-30).

So in short, Jesus acknowledges that there is surely something yet to come. But in this section of Luke, he resists the impulse to direct people’s gaze to the horizon. He’s redrawing their attention to the here and now.

A View of What’s Happening Today

Then in Luke 18:31, Jesus claims, on the way to Jerusalem, that “everything that is written about the Son of Man by the prophets will be accomplished.” This includes being delivered to the Gentiles, mocked, treated shamefully, spit upon, flogged, killed, and resurrected. The disciples simply can’t see it, however (Luke 18:34).

But a blind man can see it. Though his eyes cannot yet see, the eyes of his heart can see the Son of David (heir to the throne) passing by right in front of him (Luke 18:35-43). And astonishingly, Jericho’s chief tax collector wants to see it (Luke 19:3).

The sight of Jesus changes Zacchaeus forever. One greeting, a meal at his home, and a modicum of reflection was all he needed to turn his life around (Luke 19:8). This demonstration of repentance (compare with Luke 3:12-13) provokes Jesus to make a shocking declaration: “Today salvation has come to this house, since he also is a son of Abraham. For the Son of Man came to seek and to save the lost” (Luke 19:9-10).

Jesus spoke all about feasting with Abraham in the kingdom (Luke 13:28-30). Those who cannot recognize the master of the house of Israel will likewise go unrecognized by him (Luke 13:24-27). And here he is, in flesh and blood. He grants sight to the blind and calls Zacchaeus by name.

Here now is the “salvation” he’s been talking about through the entire book. That “salvation” is the fruit of the kingdom, which is currently present among them. The Son of Man seeks the lost, just like a shepherd with a lost sheep, a woman with a lost coin, and a father with a lost son (Luke 15:1-32). Now that salvation has come today on the unlikeliest of candidates. That fact is what spurs the people’s anticipation that the kingdom of God will appear when Jesus gets to Jerusalem (Luke 19:11).

The air is electric, and energy is at an all-time high. They wonder if this is it, if this is what they’ve been waiting for. If salvation is really present, right in front of them, embodied as a rabbi from Nazareth who has an awful lot to say about the way things ought to be.

The Prophets

And let’s not forget what the prophets had to say about this moment in history. Jesus said the prophets would be fulfilled as he came to Jerusalem (Luke 18:31).

“Behold, I send my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. And the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple; and the messenger of the covenant in whom you delight, behold, he is coming, says the Lord of hosts. But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears? For he is like a refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap…
“Then I will draw near to you for judgment. I will be a swift witness against the sorcerers, against the adulterers, against those who swear falsely, against those who oppress the hired worker in his wages, the widow and the fatherless, against those who thrust aside the sojourner, and do not fear me, says the Lord of hosts.”
Malachi 3:1-5

Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion!
Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem!
Behold, your king is coming to you;
righteous and having salvation is he,
humble and mounted on a donkey,
on a colt, the foal of a donkey…
“My anger is hot against the shepherds,
and I will punish the leaders;
for the Lord of hosts cares for his flock, the house of Judah,
and will make them like his majestic steed in battle.
“I will strengthen the house of Judah,
and I will save the house of Joseph.
I will bring them back because I have compassion on them,
and they shall be as though I had not rejected them,
for I am the Lord their God and I will answer them.
Zechariah 9:9-10:12

So when Luke brings the travel narrative to an end by having Jesus tell a parable about a God, the divine King, returning to inspect his people and temple to bring judgment on the shepherds of Israel—the words are loaded with centuries of anticipation. Who can stand before him when he appears?

It is no coincidence that the first thing Jesus does in Jerusalem is inspect the temple (Luke 19:45-46).

Judgment Falls on This Generation

Luke has spared no expense to tell Theophilus that Jesus sat in judgment over his contemporary generation of Jewish leadership. He pronounces judgment on them time and again. This judgment is something in the future, yet to come. But it will not be long. It will take place within the current generation’s lifetime (Luke 11:49-51; 12:42-48; 13:3, 5, 9, 28, 34-35).

Subsequent to the parable of the minas, Jesus will continue presenting himself in the spirit and power of the prophets, proclaiming condemnation on the corrupt shepherds of Israel (Luke 19:41-44; 21:32). Like Jeremiah, he weeps over the fate of his generation. Like Isaiah, he describes political and social upheaval by means of apocalyptic language and cosmic metaphors.

Conclusion

So where does this data lead? I believe we have good reason to read the parable of the talents primarily as a description of the judgment that will take place at Jesus’ second coming (“That day”: Matt 24:36-25:46). The parable of the talents seems to direct our attention to “that day,” when humanity will be sorted for either eternal punishment or eternal life (Matt 25:46).

But the parable of the ten minas hits much closer. In context, it appears that Jesus speaks primarily of his first coming and what is about to happen to and through him at Jerusalem. The reckoning has come for the Jewish nation and its leaders. Those who have been serving faithfully, and who recognize their master, will be rewarded with cities (Luke 19:17-18). Those who have not, and who do not, will either have their deposit taken from them (Luke 19:24) or face the executioner’s sword (Luke 19:27).

For those reading this who are immigrants to the covenants of promise (Gentiles) and not natural-born citizens (Jews): Do not become proud. For if God was willing to wipe out a generation to make room for the Gentiles to enter, will he not do the same thing with another generation who presumes upon his kindness and drifts from loyalty to him (Rom 11:17-24)? Though the parable speaks primarily about something that’s already occurred (Jesus’ first coming), it still has serious and sobering ramifications for those who would serve the King in any generation.

The Reckoning of the Minas

July 31, 2020 By Peter Krol

Have you heard the parable of the ten minas (Luke 19:11-27)? It’s sort of the creepy, leering uncle to the parable of the talents (Matthew 25:14-30). I say that because it seems sensible enough for the most part, but it has those quirky parts that would never make it into the children’s Bibles.

But as for these enemies of mine, who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slaughter them before me.
Luke 19:27

For the bulk of my Bible-reading life, I’ve assumed the parable of the minas was just a repetition of the parable of the talents that somehow lost a few things in transmission. It has ten servants instead of three. Each is given one coin, instead of differing amounts. And, of course, those citizens don’t want the guy to be their king, so he has them executed.

But for a number of years now, I’ve argued that we ought to understand such parallel passages on their own, within their own context. Perhaps these two parables really have different things to say to different audiences. So in my current study of Luke, I gave this one a fresh shot.

The Question of When

And now I arrive at my second assumption with respect to this parable. Because of my first assumption (that it’s basically the same as the parable of the talents), I’ve always assumed that it speaks of Jesus’ second coming and the future judgment of humanity.

A nobleman went into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and then return.
Luke 19:12

It seems so self-evident:

As they heard these things, he proceeded to tell a parable, because he was near to Jerusalem, and because they supposed that the kingdom of God was to appear immediately.
Luke 19:11

They supposed the kingdom of God was to appear immediately, and they were mistaken. So he tells them this parable to inform them of the great delay that must take place before his return. Easy peasy.

But hold on. Luke doesn’t say that they were mistaken. He doesn’t say, either, that Jesus aims to correct them. What if he told the parable not to correct their mistake, but to affirm the fact that they’ve finally started listening to him (see, for example, Luke 17:21)? Maybe it’s not the timing of the kingdom that they’re wrong about, but the nature of it. That, in other words, though it will appear immediately, it will not bring good news for most of them. The time has arrived for a reckoning.

Help from the Context

From the first phrase of Luke 19:11, we must ask: “What things did they hear, which prompted their enthusiasm for the kingdom’s appearance when he got to Jerusalem?” And we get much help in the immediate proximity. Check out Luke 19:9-10.

And we also ought to ask: When did Jesus, and the original audience to this parable, expect this severe reckoning to take place? What exactly is he describing by telling a story about a great king returning home to check on his appointed servants? We get much help in the succeeding vicinity. Check out Luke 19:41-44.

At this point in Luke’s gospel, Jesus has—yet again!—just reminded his disciples why he is going up to Jerusalem (and Luke has spent 10 chapters describing that single-minded journey):

See, we are going up to Jerusalem, and everything written about the Son of Man by the prophets will be accomplished.
Luke 18:31

So what did the prophets have to say about this arrival in Jerusalem? And how does the parable of the ten minas connect with what those prophets had to say? Help is available, especially in Malachi 3:1-5 and Zechariah 9:9-10:12.

Your Turn

I’ll leave it there for now, so you can examine the text yourself and consider these questions. Hopefully I’ll get to write more on it next week, after you’ve had time to ponder the matter.

Judges: We Need a King

July 24, 2020 By Peter Krol

The book of Judges contains some of our best-known Bible stories, such as Gideon and his water-lapping soldiers, and Samson and his hair. The book of Judges also contains some rarely-referenced weirdness, such as Shamgar’s oxgoad and Abimelech’s dictatorship. In addition, the book of Judges contains some horrific tales, typically considered inappropriate for polite company, such as Eglon’s feces spilling out, and a Levite’s despicable treatment of his concubine.

This book is heroic, confusing, and quite dark, sometimes all at the same time. How are we to understand its message?

Literary Markers

The book divides into sections according to the lives of its chief protagonists, the “judges,” or military and political leaders of the tribes of Israel. Some judges get complete stories assigned to them, while others get only a summary statement or two. These biographies yield the following list (I’ve indented the minor judges who appear only in summary statements):

Othniel – Jdg 3:7-11
Ehud – Jdg 3:12-30
- Shamgar – Jdg 3:31
Deborah – Jdg 4:1-5:31
Gideon – Jdg 6:1-8:35
Abimelech – Jdg 9:1-57
- Tola – Jdg 10:1-2
- Jair – Jdg 10:3-5
Jephthah – Jdg 10:6-12:7
- Ibzan – Jdg 12:8-10
- Elon – Jdg 12:11-12
- Abdon – Jdg 12:13-15
Samson – Jdg 13:1-16:31

Most of these stories end with either the death of the leader, or the land having rest from oppression, or both. So they are presented as a set of life-stories that fit together in a literary sequence.

That leaves us with a quite a bit of material at the beginning and end of the book that doesn’t fit within the sequence of life-cycles of the judges. But a closer look shows that this material is still carefully arranged.

Beginning and Ending

The book opens “after the death of Joshua” (Jdg 1:1), but then later describes what happens “when Joshua dismissed the people” (Jdg 2:6). So these scenes must be out of chronological order.

The first scene describes the results of each tribe’s conquest of the promised land, getting progressively less effective, and culminating in the condemnation of the angel of the Lord (Jdg 1:1-2:5). The second scene steps back and offers perspective on why those conquests tended to fail: The people stopped listening to Yahweh and chose instead to pursue false gods (Jdg 2:6-3:6). This second scene lays out a template of sorts, which each judge’s narrative will then follow: the people turn aside, are handed over to an oppressor, cry out to God, have a judge raised up, conquer the oppressor, find rest, and turn again to false gods.

So the opening two scenes describe what happened in the generation following Joshua’s death (scene 1), and why (scene 2).

Jumping to the end of the book, we also find two distinct units. In the first unit (Jdg 17-18), a man sets up a personal shrine with a private priest (who happens to be the grandson of Moses!), which is then robbed by the tribe that executed its conquest most poorly (Dan). In the second unit (Jdg 19-21), a Levite cannot be trusted with his own quasi-bride, civil war erupts, and everything falls to pieces.

So the closing two scenes grant us graphic portraits of why things have gotten so terrible (unit 1), and just what happens when things get so terrible (unit 2)—the same issues as the opening scenes, but in reverse order. By book’s end, we ought to feel utterly repulsed by the behavior and beliefs of the people of God. How did things ever get so out of hand, when God was so faithful to deliver them time and again?

The Refrain

The book’s final lines present a chilling assessment that ought to rattle any clear-thinking society:

In those days there was no king in Israel. Everyone did what was right in his own eyes.
Judges 21:25

This statement appears as a refrain multiple times in the closing scenes (Jdg 17:6, 18:1, 19:1, 21:25). It parallels the opening statement of Joshua’s death, leaving the people leaderless (Jdg 1:1). So the book’s conclusion is driven by this piercing assessment.

The Body

So if the book’s introduction and conclusion both unpack what went wrong and why it went wrong, what does the cycle of judges in the book’s body suggest about the narrator’s agenda?

In one sense, we can see the sequence of judges as a linear sequence getting progressively worse.

Othniel makes quick work of his adversary, fighting in the strength of God’s Spirit.
Ehud turns to deception, which is not uncommon in military campaigns but stands out by contrast with Othniel.
Deborah steps up (along with another woman, Jael), when the male military officer refuses to go without her.
Gideon is full of questions and uncertainty, refusing to become king. But he sets up an unauthorized shrine and names his son “my father is king” (Abimelech).
Abimelech doesn’t even pretend to be a good guy, but claims kingship for himself, murdering all rivals and falling to a bloody and shameful end.
Jephthah is a mighty warrior, yet also a known scoundrel and thug. Though Gideon mostly made peace with tribes who complained against him, Jephthah, upon finishing off God’s enemies, makes open war on God’s people who won’t support him.
Samson performs mighty acts of faith in Yahweh’s name, yet he can’t stop living and grasping for whatever he sees in the moment. He is rewarded with blindness so he can finally, truly see.

In this linear sequence, the judges represent the people of Israel not only politically but spiritually. The life of the judge is a living parable of the spiritual state of the community, descending into chaotic, horrific self-centeredness.

But there is another sense in which the stories of the judges are presented. In addition to the linear descent into madness, we also see a concentric (or chiastic) sequence.

Othniel
- Ehud
  - Deborah
    - Gideon
  - Abimelech
- Jephthah
Samson

How are the judges placed in parallel?

Othniel and Samson both do their work in the strength of Yahweh’s Spirit, interacting largely with the tribe of Judah.
Ehud and Jephthah both have battles (with very different results) at the fords of the Jordan.
Deborah and Abimelech are both unusual leaders. One is suffering through the appointed leader’s abdication; the other suffers from his own self-aggrandizement. Also, in both stories, the antagonist perishes from a head wound and impalement.

Gideon stands at the book’s center, as the reluctant leader who accomplishes tremendous deeds for Yahweh. Yet even his greatest victory comes tinged with a hint of self-aggrandizement (“A sword for Yahweh and for Gideon!” – Jdg 7:18). His story culminates in a critical proposition from the men of Israel: “Rule over us, you and your son and your grandson also” (Jdg 8:22). While he refuses this offer of a dynasty (Jdg 8:23), he still has the chutzpah to name one of his sons “my father is king” (Jdg 8:31). His story ends with more than a hint of something sinister afoot.

Conclusion

The book’s key question is: Who will lead these people? And its key conclusion is: They need a king. But clearly, not just any king. Someone like Abimelech will never do.

First and foremost, they need Yahweh as their king. Everything goes haywire when then they rebel against him. But perhaps Yahweh will see fit to grant them a human king in his image, after his likeness, according to his own heart. Judges only raises the question, but you have to keep reading into Ruth and 1 & 2 Samuel for an answer.

Interpretive Outline

What happens without a leader – Jdg 1:1-2:5
- Why they need a king – Jdg 2:6-3:6
  - Three kingly heroes – Jdg 3:7-5:31
    - The man who would (or would not?) be king – Jdg 6:1-8:35
  - Three very unkingly heroes – Jdg 9:1-16:31
- Why they need a king – Jdg 17:1-18:31
What the worst looks like when there is no king – Jdg 19:1-21:25

This post is part of a series of interpretive overviews of the books of the Bible.

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