Psalms | Knowable Word

Units of Thought in Poetry

February 10, 2023 By Peter Krol

The Bible’s poetry can seem so strange and foreign, until you realize how to follow their train of thought. Then you can see why so many of them are among the most moving and beautiful poems in the history of the world.

The trick is to learn to read them as poems and not simply as random collections of inspiring sentiments. Why is it encouraging to be assured that you will regularly traverse the valley of death (Ps 23:4)? Because you have a divine shepherd (Ps 23:1-4) who is a lavish host (Ps 23:5-6).

So how do we go about observing the structure of a biblical poem? How do we distinguish the stanzas or sections?

Photo by Trust “Tru” Katsande on Unsplash

Stanzas

The primary structuring device in a biblical poem is the stanza. A stanza is sort of like a paragraph in prose texts; it’s a collection of lines or sentences into a coherent unit of thought. So when seeking the structure of a poem, the first and primary goal is to divide the poem into stanzas.

Many modern Bible editions help immensely, since they put a blank space between stanzas for you. The main challenge is to figure out from the text whether your Bible’s editors are right.

For example, in Proverbs 3:13-35, every translation seems to have a different idea of where the thought-divisions occur. Though most treat Prov 3:13 as the start of a unit, the LEB includes verses 11-12 with the first stanza. There is some diversity as to whether to treat Prov 3:19-20 as its own unit or as part of what follows. Also, the ESV sees Prov 3:27 as the end of the stanza that begins with Prov 3:21, but nearly every other version considers Prov 3:27 as the start of a new stanza.

ESV	CSB	LEB	NET	NIV
13-18	13-18	11-18	13-26	13-18
19-20	19-20	19-35		19-20
21-27	21-26			21-26
28-35	27-35		27-35	27-30
				31
				32-35

Stanza divisions in Proverbs 3:13-35

How do we decide who is right? A few tools will help us make such a decision.

Refrains

The first and simplest structuring device in Hebrew poetry is the refrain. A refrain is a line or sentence that repeats at regular intervals to mark off units of thought.

Here are some examples of refrains:

“Restore us, O God, let your face shine that we may be saved” (Ps 80: 3, 7, 19) divides Psalm 80 into three stanzas.
“The Lord of hosts is with us; the God of Jacob is our fortress” (Ps 46:7, 11) divides Psalm 46 into two stanzas.
“Why are you cast down… Hope in God” (Ps 42:5, 11; Ps 43:5) divides Psalm 42-43 into three stanzas.
“For all this his anger has not turned away” (Is 9:12, 17, 21; Is 10:4) divides Isaiah 9:8-10:4 into four stanzas.
“Yet you did not return to me” (Amos 4:6, 8, 9, 10, 11) divides Amos 4:6-12 into six stanzas.

Inclusio

An inclusio is a word or phrase that occurs at the beginning and end of a passage. It is similar to a refrain, except that it occurs specifically at beginning and end, like bookends on a library shelf.

Some psalms use an inclusio at the beginning and end of the entire poem (e.g. Psalms 8, 103, 113, 118). That encompassing inclusio may help us to grasp the poem’s main idea, but it doesn’t help us break the poem down into subdivided stanzas or units of thought.
Other times, an inclusio marks off a stanza or unit of thought for us. For example:
- “wisdom and instruction” repeated in Prov 1:2, 7—showing us that those verses all fit together as a unit of thought.
- “gazelle or young stag on the mountains” bookends the poetic stanza in Song 2:8-17.

Metaphor Shifts

Often, a poet shifts gears in his thought when he shifts from one overriding metaphor to another.

In Psalm 23, there is a shift from the larger metaphor of shepherd (Ps 23:1-4) to the metaphor of host (Ps 23:5-6).
In Psalm 71, the poet seeks refuge in God (Ps 71:1-6), proves that enemies aren’t so scary (Ps 71:7-15), remembers God’s work in the past (Ps 71:16-18), and employs the past to provide hope for the future (Ps 71:19-24). The shifts in these metaphorical phases of life outline the poem’s train of thought.
In Isaiah 5, the metaphor of the vineyard dominates Is 5:1-7. Then the threat of curse (Is 5:8-23) turns into the metaphor of fire (Is 5:24-25), before the chapter concludes with the metaphor of signal or alarm (Is 5:26-30).

Grammar Shifts

Sometimes, the changes from stanza to stanza are evident through shifts in the grammar.

There could be shifts in subject, as in Psalm 24: God (1-2), God’s people (3-6), God together with his people (7-10).
There could be shifts in pronouns or audience, as in Psalm 29: speaking to heavenly beings (1-2), speaking about Yahweh’s voice (3-9), speaking about Yahweh’s enthronement (10-11).

Conclusion

To draw defensible conclusions regarding a poem’s main point, we must be able to identify the poem’s units of thought. Then we can show how each of those units builds a case and contributes to the main idea. The trick is that we can’t simply go with what “feels right.” We ought to have observable clues within the text that mark the divisions for us. Refrains, incusios, and shifts in metaphor may be among such observable evidence.

Back to Proverbs 3

So where does that leave us on the question of Proverbs 3:13-35? How do these tools help us identify the stanzas (see the chart above)?

Prov 3:13-18 has the inclusio of both “blessing” and the concept of finding or laying hold of wisdom. Prov 3:21-26 has an inclusio of “keeping” or being “kept.” That whole section of Prov 3:13-26 thus has a unified metaphor of finding and keeping wisdom. At the center of that section is a brief description of how Yahweh built wisdom right into the fabric of the universe at the moment of creation (Prov 3:19-20). This explains why it “works” that finding and keeping wisdom will result in great blessing.

Prov 3:27-28 has two prohibitions against “withholding good.” Prov 3:29-30 has two prohibitions against “planning evil.” The chapter ends (Prov 3:32-35) with a grammatical shift to four assurances (parallel to the four prohibitions) that Yahweh neither plans evil nor withholds good from the right people at the right time. In between those two four-verse chunks is a warning not to envy violent men (Prov 3:31)—those who constantly plan evil and withhold good from others when it suits them. So the entire section (Prov 3:27-35) sticks together under the larger metaphor of humanitarian dealings (love your neighbor as yourself).

So in the end, I agree with both the NET and the NIV (though the CSB is not far off). The NET is correct that there are two main units of thought. The NIV is correct that each of those main units has three subsections. We’d be greatly helped if there were a clear way to represent both the main stanzas and their subdivisions in the way our Bibles lay out the text.

The Art of Observing What’s Not Said

January 13, 2023 By Peter Krol

We’ve mentioned it a thousand times: When we observe a passage of the Bible, we’re trying to figure out what it says. However, sometimes we won’t fully grasp what it says without first observing what it doesn’t say. Ryan has made this point in two recent posts with respect to characters’ names. But what’s not said applies to many other types of observation as well. Here are three examples.

Example #1: Luke 15:11-32

The parable commonly known as “The Prodigal Son” is really about Two Brothers. We’re told of the bad choices of the younger son (Luke 15:12-16), and his risky decision to come back home (Luke 15:17-19). We’re told about what happened upon his return (father runs to meet him, throws a party, etc., in Luke 15:20-24).

Then we’re told of the bad attitude and choices of the older son (Luke 15:25-30). We hear the father’s appeal to his grumbling son (Luke 15:31-32). But we never find out what he decided or what happened.

The two brothers are parallel to one another. Their stories are parallel. Up to the point where we expect to hear the choice and results of the older son’s decision. But that choice and its results are left unsaid. The parable simply ends on a cliffhanger.

What is the point of the omission? Jesus lets the end of the story play itself out in the response of the Pharisees and scribes who were grumbling (Luke 15:2). Luke 13-14 was all about the feast and joy of the kingdom of God. Will these grumbling scribes and Pharisees enter? Will those who are saved be few (Luke 13:23)?

Example #2: Psalm 55

This emotional poem is about the pain and paranoia of betrayal. The whole poem is rather scatter-shot, without a clearly discernible structure, perhaps reflecting the manic state David is in as he composes it.

David describes the anguish of his fear, terror, and horror (Ps 55:4-5). He wants nothing more than to get out of the situation (Ps 55:6-8). And he asks God to do something about the situation (Ps 55:9).

But look at the last line of the poem. As David’s complaints rise to their peak, notice where he finally lands. He does not put his trust in what God will do. That’s how I would end such a prayer; how about you?

Instead, he ends with a declaration of trust in God himself. This might not be how we expect the poem to end, so noticing what he doesn’t say makes what he actually says really pop.

Example #3: Philippians 4:4

Here is the verse in its entirety: “Rejoice in the Lord always; again I will say, rejoice.”

In this example, I encourage you to observe what is not present at the beginning of the verse. Something that nearly everyone who reads the passage presumes is there, or at least they act like it’s there.

What is this absent wonder of which I speak? A transition.

This verse has no transition. No connector word at all to link it, divide it, or contrast it with the previous verse. This absence of a transition is one reason I believe Paul is not changing the subject. There is a “finally” in verse 8, which could be a transition to a new unit of thought (or simply conclude the list practical suggestions). Verse 10 switches from present to past tense and has “now at length,” which certainly signals a transition to a new idea.

So noticing what’s not said may help us to follow Paul’s argument, so we might avoid separating his counsel (Phil 4:4-9) from the very situation to which he directed that counsel (Phil 4:2-3).

Conclusion

Observing what’s not said is definitely an art and not a science, so you need to use common sense. Identify what you might expect from a passage. Then make sure to observe how (and whether) the text subverts those expectations to sharpen its argument. The biblical authors are constantly working to subvert our expectations so they might better persuade us to trust the Lord and seek first his kingdom.

Hope for Weary Saints from Psalm 126

December 7, 2022 By Peter Krol

Jacob Tanner offers an encouraging exposition of Psalm 126:

That Psalm 126 bears the heading “A Song of Ascents,” and is within the grouping of the Psalms of Ascent is a providential grace of God. Likely penned later than most other Psalms, it offers a great degree of hope and comfort to those weary saints who, like the Israelites of the Babylonian exile, long to be set free from their burdens and trials. It is a Psalm that promises the pious tears of troubled saints will turn to laughter and joy by the grace of God.

Check it out!

Is There a Place for Christian Prayers of Cursing?

November 9, 2022 By Peter Krol

The Psalms are often described as a hymnbook or prayer book for God’s people. Yet any reader of the Psalms can’t get far into the book without needing to ask a fundamental question: Are these prayers still fitting for God’s people who live after the cross and the teaching of Jesus? C. John Collins states the matter like this:

Many psalms call on God for help as the faithful are threatened with harm from enemies. In a number of places, the form of the requested help is God’s punishment of these enemies. Christians, with the teaching and example of Jesus (e.g., Matt. 5:38–48; Luke 23:34; 1 Pet. 2:19–23; cf. Acts 7:6), wonder what to make of such curses. How can it possibly be right for God’s people to pray in this way?

Collins’s answer is surprisingly thorough for how concise it is. I encourage you to see what he has to say.

Check it out!

Delighting in the Psalms of Ascent

October 26, 2022 By Peter Krol

Psalms 120 through 134 are known as a collection, entitled the Psalms of Ascent. Jeffrey Stivason briefly explains how they were used in Israel, how the collection is structured, and how it exalts the coming Messiah.

Brothers and sisters, the Psalms of Ascent are a reminder of what we possess in Christ. So, let us take up these Psalms. Let us read and remember that Christ built His house, laying Himself as the chief cornerstone. What is more, each of us are living stones situated one beside another creating a beautiful house temple to His glory. Therefore, let each psalm take us on a pilgrimage to our Christ. And there let us be glad and rejoice for we are safe in Him who is our God!

“Blessed is everyone who fears the Lord, who walks in his ways! You shall eat the fruit of the labor of your hands; you shall be blessed, and it shall be well with you” (Ps 128:1-2).

Check it out!

Blessed are Those Who Mourn

June 15, 2022 By Peter Krol

Andrew Kerr’s reflections on Psalm 90 are well worth considering.

For the Generation who fell in sand, before Israel reached the Promised Land, there could be no escape – as Adam found out, there is no such thing as truly-secret sins with God. All is laid bare before the eyes of Him to whom we must give account.
For the Generation who fell by sword, the experience of Jews in Exile was the same – chastened by wrath both now unite, by the Spirit of Christ, to break with their guilt and come back home to God, their true and timeless Dwelling Place.

Kerr observes the basic structure of the poem and shows us how to apply a psalm both individually and corporately. Check it out!

Psalm 91: Salvation for Those Who Make the Lord Their Dwelling Place

January 17, 2022 By Ryan Higginbottom

Some psalms are on everyone’s list of favorites. They contain evocative phrases and describe jaw-dropping promises.

Sometimes we love these psalms—or portions of these psalms—without looking at them carefully. Today we’ll take a close look at Psalm 91.

To Dwell and Trust

The first two verses of Psalm 91 function as a summary of the entire poem.

He who dwells in the shelter of the Most High will abide in the shadow of the Almighty.
I will say to the Lord, “My refuge and my fortress, my God, in whom I trust.” (Psalm 91:1–2)

For those that know and love the Lord, closeness to him is precious. Given the cause-and-effect in verse 1 (dwell in his shelter then abide in his shadow), the reader naturally wants to know, How do I dwell in the shelter of the Most High?

This question is answered at several points in the psalm, including in the following verse! In part, we dwell in God’s shelter by trusting him as our refuge and fortress (Psalm 91:2). This means we trust God for rest (as our refuge) and protection (as our fortress).

Deliverance from Snares and Fears

In Psalm 91:3–8 we read some of the implications of abiding in the “shadow of the Almighty.”

God will deliver from traps and disease (Psalm 91:3). Like a mother bird, he will protect his children (Psalm 91:4). Because he is our refuge, he will take away fear of attack and sickness (Psalm 91:5–6). Though tragedy may strike many nearby, it will not touch us (Psalm 91:7–8).

One quick observation. We can follow the structure of this psalm by paying attention to the pronouns. After the header (verse 1), the psalmist speaks to the Lord (“my God”) in verse 2. Then in Psalm 91:3–13 the author writes of God in the third person (“he”) and addresses a reader (or perhaps himself) in the second person (“you”). In the final section of the song, Psalm 91:14–16, the Lord speaks in the first person (“I”) and discusses a loyal follower (“him”).

No Evil Will Befall You

In the next section (Psalm 91:9–13), the psalmist continues to enumerate the blessings of being protected by the Lord. Yet the stakes (and the help) are not just more of the same.

In verse 9, the poet reiterates that God shows his goodness to those who have made the Lord their dwelling place. If that is the case, no plague will come near, and no evil will befall you (Psalm 91:10). Why? Because God will command his angels to take care of you (Psalm 91:11–12). Think how dear his people must be in order for the Lord to deploy his heavenly army for protection! (If you’re curious about how these verses are used by Satan to tempt Jesus, read this article.)

From scores of Bible passages we know that Psalm 91:10 is not a promise of an easy, curse-free life. The language of this psalm, particularly as it escalates in these verses, points us to eternal rather than temporal fulfillment of God’s promises.

This section discusses evil and angels, so the psalmist has not just earthly but cosmic conflict in mind. Verse 13 may pick up on that theme. A blessing of dwelling with the Lord is trampling on the young lion and the serpent (Psalm 91:13). So God may be enlisting his children (and foreshadowing the Lord Jesus) in turning back evil.

Blessings of Holding Fast to the Lord

In the final stanza of the psalm we read of God’s blessings from his perspective. We also have a fuller answer to our earlier question of how someone would dwell in God’s shelter.

God gives three indicators in these final verses of how to be blessed. Such a person must hold fast to God in love, he must know God’s name, and he must cry out to God in trouble (Psalm 91:14–15). In response, the Lord promises blessing upon blessing: he will deliver, protect, be with, rescue, and honor him. The final verse of the psalm is the culmination of all these blessings: “With long life I will satisfy him and show him my salvation” (Psalm 91:16).

We must not forget Jesus as we interpret any portion of Scripture. To “hold fast” to God demands that we do so as he stipulates. And Jesus tells us that we must abide in him (John 15:4). The good news of the gospel of Jesus is that our blessings depend on his faithfulness, not ours.

Application From a Favorite Psalm

It’s easy to see why this psalm is a favorite. Especially for those who are fearful and those who need protection, God gives deep and sweeping promises. What is the psalmist’s main point?

There is salvation for those who make the Lord God their dwelling place.

What are some possible applications? For personal/inward application, I landed on some challenging questions. Here’s just one: Do I trust the Lord and treat him as my refuge and fortress? If I am failing to trust the Lord, it might be helpful to list as many reasons as possible—from the Bible and my walk with God—that he can be trusted to provide rest and protection. Remember, it is God’s faithfulness that is a shield for us (Psalm 91:4).

There are numerous outward applications as well. Our friends and neighbors may dwell in the shelter of many things aside from the Lord. Whether we have a Christian or non-Christian friend in mind, Psalm 91 offers a compelling argument to make “the Lord your dwelling place” (Psalm 91:9).

Context Matters: Dashing Little Ones Against the Rock

November 3, 2021 By Peter Krol

Psalm 137:9 offers an alarming benediction on those engaged in a shockingly outrageous behavior: “Blessed shall he be who takes your little ones and dashes them against the rock!” What is a serious student of the Bible to make of this, in light of Jesus’ welcoming of little children and his admonition to love one’s enemies?

Joe Palekas has a marvelous piece asking this very question. And to answer it, he takes a thorough tour of the context of Psalm 139:9. He looks at the literary context and train of thought in the poem itself. He looks at historical context when it was written. He looks at the larger literary context of the arrangement of psalms. He looks at the covenantal context, particularly in light of Isaiah’s predictions of the Day of the Lord to be brought against Babylon in Isaiah 13. Palekas looks at the context of the fulfillment in Christ. And he examines how all these contexts then lead us to application in our day and point in history.

In the end, he reaches the following conclusion:

Now Psalm 137 begins to become clearer. The community of exiles weeping by the waters of Babylon are calling for the day of the LORD. God has promised his covenant people that he will return them from exile and visit a just reward upon their captors. He promised this before he even sent them to exile. Psalm 137 contrasts the “day of Jerusalem” with the day of the LORD promised in Isaiah 13 and alluded to in Psalm 137:9. The astonishing and overwhelming image of dashing infants on the rocks is not the product of some twisted or vengeful human imagination. It is a call for God to be faithful to his covenant promises.

This is some terrific Bible study and contextual thinking at its finest. If you’ve ever wondered about that line about bashing babies on rocks, I encourage you to check it out. And if you’d like to see a skillful example of how context matters, I also encourage you to check it out!

Psalm 90: A Brief Life, Our Eternal God, and Unending Joy

September 27, 2021 By Ryan Higginbottom

Some psalms are on everyone’s list of favorites. They contain poignant phrases and urgent cries that resonate deeply with our own hearts.

Sometimes we love these psalms—or portions of these psalms—without looking at them carefully. Today we’ll take a close look at Psalm 90.

Our Sovereign God is Everlasting

This is the only Psalm attributed to Moses, and he wrote the whole psalm as a corporate prayer addressed directly to God.

The theme of time is inescapable in Psalm 90, showing up in nearly every verse. To avoid cluttering this article with these observational details, I’ve put that list in this document here.

God has been his people’s “dwelling place in all generations” (Ps 90:1). This is personal. He is God and has been God even before he created the world (Ps 90:2). So while God is certainly the creator, he is more than the creator.

God created man from dust and calls him back at the end of life. This God is in control of the span of human days (Ps 90:3).

Time does not function for God the way it does for us. A thousand years for God is like a day (Ps 90:4). He sweeps millennia away like a dream (Ps 90:5); they rise and fall as quickly as the morning and evening (Ps 90:6).

Our Short Life, in View of God’s Wrath

The middle of Psalm 90 is unsettling, because Moses makes frequent mention of God’s wrath. God’s “anger” or “wrath” appears five times in Psalm 90:7–11.

God’s anger troubles his people (Ps 90:7). But the reason for God’s wrath is not mysterious.

You have set our iniquities before you,
our secret sins in the light of your presence. (Psalm 90:8)

Because our sins are obvious to God, “our days pass away under [his] wrath” (Ps 90:9). Though we may live to be seventy or eighty, our years are “toil and trouble,” and “they are soon gone” (Ps 90:10). With God’s perspective on time, our lives are a blink on the horizon.

Moses brings us around the corner of somberness in verse 11. Many consider God’s wrath, but who does so according to the fear of the Lord? (See Ps 90:11). This posture, and not one of mere terror before God, leads to a proper, sober application of the truth of a brief life. “So teach us to number our days, that we may get a heart of wisdom” (Ps 90:12). Notably, this is Moses’s first request in this prayer.

God’s Favor Makes All the Difference

While verses 7–12 show us the brevity of life in view of God’s wrath, verses 13–17 point to the mercy of God.

Moses longs for God’s nearness, for the mercy of his return (Ps 90:13). The psalm then explains what such a return would mean for God’s people.

God is not only angry at sin, he is known for his steadfast love. This steadfast love, once shown to his people, would sustain them with joy all of their days (Ps 90:14). Though there has been affliction and evil—think of all Moses and the Israelites experienced in Egypt!—God is able to bring them unending gladness (Ps 90:15).

With this as the backdrop—God’s return, bringing his satisfying, steadfast love to his people—Moses turns to pray about the Israelites’ work in the world. He asks God to show his work and his “glorious power” to his servants and their children (Ps 90:16). Then, in light of God’s work, and if his favor is upon them, can his people pray about their own work in the world: “Establish the work of our hands upon us; yes, establish the work of our hands!” (Ps 90:17)

Application From a Favorite Psalm

In this psalm, God’s people praise God for his sovereign, eternal nature and they consider their own time-bound lives. They consider God’s anger toward sin and his steadfast love. So, what is Moses’s main point in writing this psalm?

In our brief lives, we must seek our satisfaction in the steadfast love of the everlasting God.

What are some possible applications? As we consider our brief time on earth, we should number our days. This means we should celebrate birthdays with both joy and sobriety. We should hold our years loosely. At the start of each day we should commit our upcoming hours to the Lord, and we should return thanks to him as each day comes to a close.

If that was an inward application, here’s an outward one. We can help our friends consider their work in light of the Lord’s work. In our churches, we can regularly celebrate God’s work in our communities, we can pray for his ongoing favor, and we can ask him to establish the work of our hands.

Context Matters: We Bless You in the Name of the Lord

August 6, 2021 By Peter Krol

Perhaps you’ve heard it as a greeting or call to worship: “The blessing of the Lord be upon you! We bless you in the name of the Lord!” (Ps 129:8). Or if you haven’t heard it in such a setting, I suspect it is not difficult to imagine hearing it in such a setting. A simple internet search takes me quickly to a slide with this verse superimposed over a pastoral background image.

Now while it is fully consistent with scripture to pronounce God’s blessing on God’s people, this particular blessing comes in a rather unexpected setting. If we read the Bible’s poetry as we read other poetry and not as a fishing hole for motivational sentiment, we’ll see that some familiar expressions take on a deeper meaning than we originally thought.

The Blessing

Of course, the Bible often tells us of God blessing his people, even from the very beginning (Gen 1:28). He commands the high priest of Israel to pronounce his blessing (Num 6:22-27). In their lowest moments, the people long for this very blessing (Ps 80:3, 7, 19). The apostles often conclude their letters with such words of blessing (e.g. 2 Cor 13:14).

So the pronouncement of a blessing, either in greeting or as a call to worship, is a right and proper thing to do. But let’s not allow that fact to prevent us from reading Scripture as coherent literary texts. Let’s not ignore the context.

Psalm 129

Psalms 120-134 are a collection of “songs of ascents,” which pilgrims to religious feasts may have sung on their climb to Jerusalem for national feasts. As one of those poems, Psalm 129 meditates on the lives on those pilgrims who have suffered under deep affliction. This affliction seems incongruent with the life of blessing promised in Yahweh’s covenant. “Greatly have they afflicted me from my youth, yet they have not prevailed against me” (Ps 129:2).

Ps 129:4 is the turning point, where the poet remembers Yahweh’s righteousness, which requires him to fight back against wicked oppressors. The rest of the poem pronounces not blessings, but curses on those who would dare oppress Yahweh’s people. “May all who hate Zion be put to shame and turned backward!” (Ps 129:5).

And observe the entirety of Ps 129:8: The final curse is that, regarding these oppressors, nobody will ever look upon them and pronounce Yahweh’s blessing on them.

Nor do those who pass by say,
‘The blessing of Yahweh be upon you!
We bless you in the name of Yahweh!’

Conclusion

The irony of the greeting-card use of Ps 129:8 is that the statement “We bless you in the name of the Lord” is the very thing the poet does not want people to say. He wants those who hate God’s people to go without hearing such words or receiving such a blessing. And when we ignore the context, perhaps we fail to grasp the profound point that there is a time and a place not to bless. Instead, we can set our hope in the Lord Jesus to show up once again and set right everything that has gone wrong.

For more examples of why context matters, click here.

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